University linkages in science and technology for the Asia and Near East Bureau

This paper, based on a review of A.I.D. impact evaluations and final project evaluations of institution-building projects carried out in the Asia/Near East region, focuses on two kinds of linkages: "internal" (in which a host country and a U.S. university work together to improve teaching, research, and outreach in both) and "external" (typically, an agreement between a host country university and a productive public or private sector institution to work jointly to develop a product or service). Several lessons emerged from the review. (1) To effectively assist host country universities, A.I.D. and U.S. universities must make long-term commitments to linkages. (2) Individual leadership and the quality of interpersonal relationships play an important role in the success or failure of linkages. (3) Organizational flexibility and innovation are encouraged in linkage arrangements. (4) Host country institutions need political support from the central government in order to be proactive institutions and to develop effective external linkages. (5) Internal accountability and external pressure groups can accelerate the development of external linkages. (6) The sustainability of linkages is related to six factors, namely, favorable government conditions, trust, autonomy, an entrepreneurial approach, quality standards, and a "demand-driven" awareness.