Gangs in the Time of Globalization: A Spotlight on Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13)

The phenomenon is characterized by the presence of gangs in numerous countries, including El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Guatemala, the United States, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Canada, Venezuela, Argentina, and Spain. Additionally, gangs have a presence in the United States, Puerto Rico, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic, Bolivia, Canada, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and Belgium. The term "gang" is often associated with violence perpetrated by marginalized youth in large urban areas. However, the phenomenon of gangsterism is more nuanced and multifaceted. In Latin America, gangs such as Mara Salvatrucha and Barrio 18 in Central America, the Combos and the Parches of Medellín's Communes, and the Nações or Gangs of Guayaquil and Quito, have emerged as a result of social, economic, and cultural factors. The social tensions surrounding the phenomenon of gangs are also determined by other forms of discrimination or structural violence, including classism, racism, xenophobia, sexism, and child abuse. These predominant representations establish a direct and unequivocal relationship between gangs and criminality, which is a common misconception. In reality, gangs are not static phenomena that appear on the margins of society, but rather symptoms of global social dynamics that are concentrated in metropolitan centers and have expanded around the world. Gangs are closely related to contemporary migratory dynamics, both in terms of internal displacements and immigration across national borders. Many gangs originated from migrant populations in the United States and have spread to Latin America, the Caribbean, and Europe. These groups emerge as a reaction to organized and disorganized violence in the United States' slums, and are often linked to racism and xenophobia. The current phenomenon of gangsterism is also related to the use and utilization of children, adolescents, and young people by organized criminal structures in marginal neighborhoods and urban areas' informal settlements. These conditions are conducive to the emergence of gangs, as many are formed with the social, political, and cultural objective of combating multiple forms of marginalization and social exclusion. In the 21st century, the globalized trends of poverty, social exclusion, and informality have a predominantly urban face, as the megalopolises absorb most of the population growth and the urban population begins to surpass the rural population around the world. It is in these "mega-cities" that the pathologies of cities become most manifest, including inequality, exclusion, segregation, violence, and insecurity. These conditions are conducive to the emergence of gangs, which are created with the social, political, and cultural purpose of combating multiple forms of marginalization and social exclusion. Gangs, as a globalized phenomenon, are closely linked to the conformity of urban subcultures. The so-called ghettos are not only places marked by segregation, but also by the exchange of cultural identities centered on youth. Gangs such as the Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation exemplify the hybridization of cultural heritages, from aesthetics, art, music, and hip-hop music, illustrated by the symbolic five-pointed crown, but also the religious syncretism of "kingism" ceremonies based on Christian liturgy, as well as the ritual sacrifice, necklaces, and the figure of the Inca who heads the Nation. The cultural industry plays a significant role in reproducing and nurturing these urban subcultures, which are a fundamental part of our global cultural imaginaries. The phenomenon of gangsterism is also closely linked to the conformaion of urban subcultures, which are a fundamental part of our global cultural imaginaries. The cultural industry plays a significant role in reproducing and nurturing these urban subcultures, which are a fundamental part of our global cultural imaginaries.