Literature Review (Part 1): How do learning outcomes compare between learners in different remote settings?

Remote learning occurs when the learner and instructor are separated in distance, and traditional classroom settings are not feasible. This can be due to various reasons, including geographical constraints, time zone differences, or personal preferences. Remote training has become popular due to its potential for providing flexible access to content and instruction at any time, from any place. The motivation for remote training programs often involves increasing availability of learning experiences for learners who cannot or choose not to attend traditional face-to-face offerings. Additionally, remote training can be cost-effective, allowing for the dissemination of instructional content more efficiently. Access to quality instructors is also a significant advantage, particularly for learners in areas where qualified instructors are scarce. There are several types of remote training, including distance education, online training, and blended learning. Distance education involves the quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner, with the influence of an educational organization, the use of technical media, and the provision of two-way communication. Online training, on the other hand, is a more recent development, characterized by the use of automated response systems, web-based applications, and new collaboration and communication technologies. Blended learning combines classroom instruction with out-of-class online learning, where the online work substitutes for class time. This approach has been seen as innovative, allowing for more efficient learning environments and providing additional support to students. Researchers have explored different modalities of blended learning, including the flipped-classroom and reverse flipped-classroom approaches. Studies have compared learning outcomes between learners in distance education, online training, and blended learning versus classroom instruction. Clark (1994) criticized early media comparison studies, arguing that the medium, instructional method, and content of instruction form a confound that makes their relative contributions to learning impossible to untangle. However, Kozma (1994) countered that high-level interactions possible through more recent media make the consideration of separating the medium from the instructional method as two independent variables irrelevant. A framework of analysis for comparing learning outcomes in remote settings has been proposed by Means et al. (2013). This framework considers various factors, including the proportion of online learning, pedagogical approach, communication synchronicity, media features, opportunities to interact, problem/project-based learning, opportunity for practice, opportunity for feedback, course duration, instructor training in online teaching, year of publication, learner type, learning age, setting, subject matter, type of learning assessed, study design, unit of assignment, sample size, instructor equivalence, materials/instruction equivalence, time-on-task equivalence, attrition equivalence, and contamination. Overall, the comparison of learning outcomes in remote settings is a complex issue, influenced by various factors and approaches. Further research is needed to fully understand the effectiveness of different remote training methods and to identify best practices for improving learning outcomes in these settings.