Teaching practices to increase student achievement : evidence from Pakistan

The following are among the general findings. (1) Effective teachers are more likely to use systematic logical sequences in teaching. One such sequence includes review, preliminary statements to focus student attention, presentation of new materials, guided practice, independent practice, and added practice with homework. Effective teachers tend to use a more complete set of these behaviors than less effective teachers. (2) Effective practices are synergistic. Isolated practices, no matter how effective in themselves, do not appear to be as effective as a package with as many of the key elements in it as possible. (3) Variety is useful in reinforcing learning. A single practice or task contributes to learning up to a point in a lesson, after which it loses its potency. Even seemingly sterile activities such as "copying" can be helpful when supplementing other ways of learning. (4) Learning is a contextual phenomenon. Effective practices in one subject or setting, or with one type of teacher, may not work well in another. The paper describes these differences. Effective teachers adapt practices to the conditions in which they teach. (5) Effective teachers seem to be aware of the learning implications of instructional practices. All practices that are repeated in the classroom have implications for who learns and how much is learned. (6) Effective teachers organize available instructional time so that students spend as much time as possible directly engaged in learning tasks. The teacher can use time productively by appropriate scheduling, by the kinds of tasks assigned, by proportioning time on learning activities in ways effective to the subject matter, and by being absent, and encouraging students to be absent, as little as possible. (7) Effective teachers use feedback to reinforce learning and to help children feel they can successfully complete school work. Monitoring is best when teachers give students individual help. (8) Effective teachers create an orderly environment for learning with rules that are understood and automatically followed by students so that learning is not interrupted by distractions. (9) Effective teachers give children opportunities to be independent learners. Includes policy recommendations. (Author abstract, modified)